Bandura’s (1969) social cognitive learning theory of behavior assumed individual personality and behaviors arise from an individual’s unique learning experiences and the effects of negative and positive reinforcement as these experiences occur. Social cognitive or learning theory proposed that three major types of learning experiences result in behaviors and skills that allow a person to function effectively in society. These experiences include, (a) instrumental learning experiences occurring when the individual is positively or negatively reinforced for a behavior; (b) associative learning experiences occurring when the individual associates a previously neutral event with an emotionally laden event; and (c) vicarious experiences occurring when the individual observes the behavior of others or gains new information and ideas from other sources.
The social learning theory of Krumboltz, Mitchell, and Jones (1976) was an outgrowth of Bandura’s social cognitive theory of behavior. Social learning theory assumes personality and behaviors come directly from the unique learning experiences that each individual has undergone. Additionally, Mitchell and Krumboltz (1990) stated genetic endowment and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, and task approach skills allow individuals to take part in a variety of planned and unplanned learning experiences, thereby, shaping their future career preferences and choices as they make formal and informal assessments concerning their personal capabilities and the world of work in general. Genetic endowments and special abilities are inherited qualities which may set limits on an individual’s skills. Environmental conditions or events are factors over which the individual has no control. Task approach skills are the skills, performance standards and values, work habits, and perceptual and cognitive processes an individual brings to new problems. Mitchell and Krumboltz also consider economic and sociological conditions to be reinforcers for individuals as individuals evaluate each of their unique learning experiences.
Krumboltz’s (1981) theory posited three basic factor groups as the determinants shaping career preferences. Within these factors, he developed a number of testable propositions and determined that equal importance rests on the inverse influence of each.
1. Factors influencing preferences with an educational or occupational preference being an evaluative self-observation generalization based on those learning experiences pertinent to any career task with propositions explaining the acquisition of these preferences.
Proposition IA1. An individual is more likely to express a preference for a course of study, an occupation, or the tasks and consequences of a field of work if that individual has been positively reinforced for engaging in activities one has learned are associated with the successful performance of that course, occupation, or field of work (p. 59).
Proposition IA2. An individual is more likely to express a preference for a course of study, an occupation, or the tasks and consequences of a field of work if that individual has observed a valued model being reinforced for engaging in activities one has learned are associated with the successful performance of that course, occupation, or field of work (p. 59).
Proposition IA3. An individual is more likely to express a preference for a course of study, an occupation, or the tasks and consequences of a field of work if that individual has consistent, positive reinforcement for engaging in activities one has learned are associated with the successful performance of that course, occupation, or field of work (p. 59).
2. Factors influencing career-decision making skills with propositions explaining how these particular skills are acquired.
Proposition IIA1. An individual is more likely to learn the cognitive and performance and emotional responses necessary for career planning, self-observing, goal setting, and information seeking if that individual has been positively reinforced for those responses (p. 61).
Proposition IIA2. An individual is more likely to learn the cognitive and performance and emotional responses necessary for career planning, self-observing, goal setting, and information seeking if that individual has observed real or vicarious models engaged in effective career-decision making strategies (p. 62).
Proposition IIA3. An individual is more likely to learn the cognitive and performance and emotional responses necessary for career planning, self-observing, goal setting, and information seeking if that individual has access to people and other resources with the necessary information (p. 62).
3. Factors influencing entry behaviors into educational or occupational alternatives with propositions explaining factors accounting for the actual entry behaviors into occupations, training programs, or educational courses of study.
Proposition IIIA1. An individual is more likely to take actions leading to enrollment in a given course or employment in a given occupation or field of work if that individual has recently expressed a preference for that course, occupation, or field of work (p. 63).
Proposition IIIA2. An individual is more likely to take actions leading to enrollment in a given course or employment in a given occupation or field of work if that individual has been exposed to learning and employment opportunities in that course, occupation, or field of work (p. 63).
Proposition IIIA3. An individual is more likely to take actions leading to enrollment in a given course or employment in a given occupation or field of work if that individual’s learning skills match the educational and/or occupational requirements (p. 64).
While a number of studies conducted through the years have provided credence to parts of Mitchell et al.’s theory, this was not the initial purpose of the studies but do appear to be relevant to social learning theory. Almquist (1974) found females selecting male-dominated occupations were highly influenced by female role models to support “proposition 1” and Hawley (1972) found women in nontraditional roles perceived significant males to be encouraging with respect to women’s abilities to engage in serious work to support “proposition 3.” Additionally, Oliver (1975) found verbal reinforcement from counselors could modify stated career choices for high school students. Krumboltz, Baker, and Johnson (1967) and Krumboltz et al. (1976) demonstrated that providing students with simulated work activities produced more occupational information for each student than did presentation of information through pamphlets or films.
Mitchell and Krumboltz (1990) stated that all individuals regardless of race, gender, or ethnic origin must have exposure to the widest array of learning opportunities available for maximum career development. These learning opportunities would include mentors and role models in addition to scheduled learning experiences, such as school. Based on changes in societal influences and shifts in conventional values, Obleton (1984) described beneficial results from deliberately planned model-mentor workshops aimed at career development processes when used with young black females, and Gerstein, Lichtman, and Barokas’ (1988) longitudinal study showed professional careers chosen over clerical/sales when female high school seniors were studied. Looking at positive reinforcement issues, Astin (1965), Baird (1971), Chusmir (1983), Brooks and Haigler (1984), Kerr and Ghrist-Priebe (1988), and Osipow (1972) found students felt comfortable even though undecided about formal career plans, raised career aspirations, or changed career or educational plans when they were positively reinforced by a valued person or a valued model. Research conducted by Hawley (1972), Little and Roach (1974), and Trent and Medsker (1968) found a major determinant of decisions to attend college or choose nontraditional careers to be students’ perception of parental support. Fitzgerald, Fassinger, and Betz (1995) pointed out empirical support for social learning theory of career decision making has been largely confined to early correlational studies and little significant evolution has occurred during the past 20 years.
Although Krumboltz (1988) developed the Career Beliefs Inventory to help identify inaccurate self-observations, researchers have focused more attention on the area of occupational information-seeking with Krumboltz et al.’s (1967) development of the Job Experience Kits designed to provide clients with successful experiences and job information. As the Job Experience Kits are not identical in content, counselors can individualize the interviewing and “shadowing” of workers, the use of films, and other printed materials to tailor these experiences to the previous learning experiences and interests of clients (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990). Jones and Krumboltz (1970) developed the Vocational Exploratory Behavior Inventory to evaluate the task approach skills, i.e., talking to counselors, acquiring occupational information, etc., needed by a client in career decision making.
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